Green-synthesized ZnO-reinforced Cladophora glomerata–PVA Biocomposite Films: Physicochemical, Mechanical, Biodegradation and Antibacterial Performance
J. Environ. Nanotechnol., Volume 15, No 3 (September 2026) pp. 229-243
Abstract
The biocompatible films made from renewable biological materials have received significant interest due to their biodegradable, biocompatible and multifunctional properties. The novelty of this study lies in the dual utilization of Cladophora glomerata, with its biomass incorporated into the PVA film matrix and its extract employed as a biological medium for the green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were subsequently incorporated into the biomass–PVA films at 1, 3, and 5 wt.%. In this research, Cladophora glomerata was used as a renewable stabilizing agent for ZnO nanoparticles synthesized through a green method and subsequently loaded into biomass–PVA composite films at 1, 3, and 5 wt.%. Successful formation of crystalline hexagonal ZnO was confirmed by XRD, while FTIR indicated the presence of functional groups potentially involved in interactions between biomass, PVA, and ZnO, as evidenced by characteristic peaks at 3410 cm⁻¹, 1636 cm⁻¹, and 1056 cm⁻¹. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles exhibited an optical absorption edge of 339–341 nm and a zeta potential of −29.29 mV. The DLS-derived hydrodynamic diameter of 339–341 nm likely reflects aggregation in suspension rather than the primary nanoparticle size. Thermal stability was also enhanced when ZnO was added to the neat film, as seen from the DSC analysis, where the main endothermic transition was shifted from 220°C for the neat film to 228°C for the ZnO-incorporated film. The tensile strength decreased from 11.0 ± 0.3 MPa for the biomass–PVA film to 4.5 ± 0.4, 1.5 ± 0.5, and 2.0 ± 0.5 MPa for the 1, 3, and 5 wt.% ZnO films, respectively, likely due to ZnO aggregation, matrix discontinuity, and localized stress concentration, whereas the 1 wt.% ZnO film exhibited the highest elongation at break (90 ± 3%). The liquid uptake for the 5 wt.% ZnO formulation was found to be 125 ± 3%, which reduced from 155 ± 5% in the case of the control film, and all film formulations exhibited more than 70% soil-induced mass loss after seven days. The 3 wt.% ZnO formulation was preferred specifically based on antibacterial performance; however, the most suitable ZnO loading remained application-dependent because the 1 wt.% formulation exhibited the highest elongation at break, whereas the 5 wt.% formulation showed the lowest liquid uptake. The results indicated that the prepared biomass–PVA/ZnO biocomposite can be used as a sustainable and environmentally friendly material in food packaging and biomedical applications.
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