MXene-based Nanobiosensors for Environmental Pollutant Detection: Recent Advances, Challenges and Future Perspectives
J. Environ. Nanotechnol., Volume 15, No 3 (September 2026) pp. 614-635
Abstract
MXenes have appeared as a potential variety of two-dimensional materials for environmental biosensing due to their remarkable conductivity, flexible surface chemistry, and large surface area. This article presents an analytical review based on published works covering the last ten years, though it goes beyond previous analyses in scope. This paper takes an integrated approach to the synthesis of MXenes, as well as their surface modifications, biosensing methods, applications of MXenes to environmental monitoring, challenges of commercializing MXenes, and possible areas for future studies. Studies in the literature show that MXene-based nanobiosensors provide superior performance in terms of enhanced sensitivity and selectivity as well as fast responses in detecting various environmental pollutants such as metals, pesticides, microorganisms, drugs, and new organic substances. Additionally, it discusses the effect of synthesis and surface modification on the efficiency of sensors for different applications in environmental monitoring.
There are various critical challenges hindering the successful use of MXene-based nanobiosensors in practice. These cover issues such as degradation due to oxidation, low reproducibility, difficulties related to large-scale manufacturing, lack of standardized and regulated fabrication processes, as well as lack of toxicity testing over longer periods of time, which presents hurdles for commercialization and adoption of these devices in practice. All these aspects are discussed in detail in relation to practical environmental monitoring with the aim of identifying gaps in knowledge and technology. Future studies need to focus on achieving the development of oxidation-resistant MXenes, methods of sustainable synthesis, standardized production processes, large-scale manufacturing approaches, and complete environmental safety assessments. Solving these issues will allow MXenes-based nanobiosensors to emerge from the laboratory setup and be used in environmental monitoring in practice.
Full Text
Reference
Afshari, P., Maryna, P., Lira, C., Katnam, K. B., Mahdi, B. and Hamed, Y. N., Mechanical Strain Tailoring via Magnetic Field Assisted 3D Printing of Iron Particles Embedded Polymer Nanocomposites, Macromol. Mater. Eng., 308(11), 2300194 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202300194
Ahmaruzzaman, M., MXenes and MXene-supported nanocomposites: A novel material for aqueous environmental remediation, RSC Adv., 12(53), 34766–34789 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1039/D2RA05530A
Akhter, R. and Maktedar, S. S., MXenes: A comprehensive review of synthesis, properties, and progress in supercapacitor applications, J. Materiomics, 9(6), 1196–1241 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmat.2023.08.011
Ali, A., Majhi, S. M., Siddig, L. A., Deshmukh, A. H., Wen, H., Qamhieh, N. N., Greish, Y. E. and Mahmoud, S. T., Recent advancements in MXene-based biosensors for health and environmental applications—a review, Biosens., 14(10), 497 (2024a).
https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14100497
Ali, M. R., Bacchu, M. S., Al-Mamun, M. R., Hossain, M. I., Khaleque, A., Khatun, A., Ridoy, D. D., Aly, M. A. S. and Khan, M. Z. H., Recent advances in MXene research toward biosensor development, Critical Rev. Anal. Chem., 54(6), 1381-1398 (2024b).
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408347.2022.2115286
An, T., Zhang, Y., Wen, J., Dong, Z., Du, Q., Liu, L., Wang, Y., Xing, G. and Zhao, X., Multi-level pyramidal microstructure-based pressure sensors with high sensitivity and wide linear range for healthcare monitoring, ACS sens., 9(2), 726-735 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.3c02001
Anasori, B., Maria, L. R. and Yury, G., 2D metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) for energy and environmental applications, Nat. Rev. Mater., 2(2), 16098 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1038/natrevmats.2016.98
Anju, S. and Mohanan, P. V., Biomedical applications of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), Synth. Met., 271, 116610 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synthmet.2020.116610
Askari, S., Salimifard, H., Alavi, R., Eskandari, M., Zarepour, A., Khosravi, A., Iravani, S. and Zarrabi, A., Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based aptasensors: graphene and MXenes as emerging biosensing platforms, ACS Appl. Nano Mater., 8(37), 17819-17862 (2025).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.5c03078
Ayodhya, D., A review of recent progress in 2D MXenes: Synthesis, properties, and applications, Diam. Relat. Mater., 132, 109634 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diamond.2022.109634
Benchakar, M., Lola, L., Cyril, G., Bilyk, T., Moris, C., Canaff, C., Nadia, G., Sophie, M., Hanna P., Simon, H., Patrick, C., Pacaud, J., Vincent, M., Micheal, B. W., Habrioux, A. and Stephane, C., One MAX phase, different MXenes: A guideline to understand the crucial role of etching conditions on Ti3C2Tx surface chemistry, Appl. Surf. Sci., 530 147209 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.147209
Cai, Z., Liu, B., Zou, X. and Cheng, H. M., Chemical Vapor Deposition Growth and Applications of Two-Dimensional Materials and Their Heterostructures, Chem. Rev., 118(3), 6091-6133 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00536
Carey, M. S., Sokol, M., Palmese, G. R. and Michel, B. W., Water Transport and Thermomechanical Properties of Ti3C2Tz MXene Epoxy Nanocomposites, ACS Appl. Mater. Interf., 11(42), 39143-39149 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b11448
Catania, F., Elena, M., Mauro, G., Pravin, J., Luca, L., Alberto, T. and Bartoli, M., A review on recent advancements of graphene and graphene-related materials in biological applications, Appl. Sci., 11(2), 614(2021).
https://doi.org/10.3390/app11020614
Chaudhary, V., Neugebauer, P., Mounkachi, O., Lahbabi, S. and El Fatimy, A., Phosphorene—an emerging two-dimensional material: recent advances in synthesis, functionalization, and applications, 2D Mater., 9(3), 032001 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1583/ac6dc2
Choudalakis, G. and Gotsis, A. D., Permeability of polymer/clay nanocomposites: A review, Eur. Polym. J., 45(4), 967-984 (2009).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2009.01.027
Deng, Q., Zhou, F., Ben, Q., Feng, Y. and Xu, Z., Eco-friendly poly(vinyl alcohol)/delaminated V2C MXene high-k nanocomposites with low dielectric loss enabled by moderate polarization and charge density at the interface, Ceram. Int., 46(17), (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.07.218
Ding, L., Wei, Y., Li, L., Zhang, T., Wang, H., Xue, J., Ding, L.X., Wang, S., Caro, J. and Gogotsi, Y., MXene molecular sieving membranes for highly efficient gas separation, Nat. Commun., 9(1), 155 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02529-6
Downes, M., Shuck, C. E., McBride, B., Busa, J. and Gogotsi, Y., Comprehensive synthesis of Ti3C2Tx from MAX phase to MXene, Nat. protocols, 19(6), 1807-1834 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-024-00969-1
Eklund, P., Manfred, B., Jansson, U., Hans, H. and Lars, H., The M+1AX phases: Materials science and thin-film processing, Thin Solid Films, 518(8), 1851–1878 (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2009.07.184
Fan, F. R., Wang, R., Zhang, H. and Wu, W., Emerging beyond-graphene elemental 2D materials for energy and catalysis applications, Chem. Soc. Rev., 50(19), 10983-11031 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1039/c9cs00821g
Fan, Y., Li, L., Zhang, Y., Zhang, X., Geng, D. and Hu, W., Recent advances in growth of transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) crystals, Adv. Funct. Mater., 32(16), 2111357 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202111357
Feng, A., Hou, T., Jia, Z., Yi, Z., Fan, Z. and Wu, G., Preparation and characterization of epoxy resin filled with Ti3C2Tx MXene nanosheets with excellent electric conductivity, Nanomater., 10(1), 162 (2020a).
https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10010162
Feng, Y., Hui, W., Xu, J., Du, X., Xu, C., Du, Z. and Wang, H., Fabrication of MXene/PEI functionalized sodium alginate aerogel and its excellent adsorption behavior for Cr(VI) and Congo Red from aqueous solution, J. Hazard Mater., 416, 125777 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125777
Feng, Y., Zhou, F., Bo, M., Huang, Y., Deng, Q. and Peng, C., Enabling high dielectric response in PVDF/V2C MXene-TiO2 composites based on nontypical V-F-Ti bonding and fermi-level overlapping mechanisms, J. Phy. Chem. C, 124(50), 27780-27789 (2020b).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c08444
Fuhrer, M. S., Lau, C. N. and Allan, M. H., Graphene: Materially Better Carbon, MRS Bull., 35(4), 289–295 (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs2010.551
Giménez, R., Berna, S., San, M. V. and Juan, C. C., Recent Advances in MXene/Epoxy Composites: Trends and Prospects, Polym., 14(6), 1170 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061170
Griffith, K. J., Hope, M. A., Philip, R. J., Anayee, M., Yury, G. and Grey, C. P., Bulk and Surface Chemistry of the Niobium MAX and MXene Phases from Multinuclear SolidState NMR Spectroscopy, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 142(44), 18924-18935 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.0c09044
Gulzar, A., Haleem, A., Rehman, T. U., Ullah, M., Shah, A. and Ullah, I., Harnessing the power of MXenes: a comprehensive exploration of their photocatalytic potential in mitigating hazardous dyes and CO2 reduction, Discover Mater., 4(1), 15 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43939-024-00081-x
Guo, L., Zhang, Z., Li, M., Kang, R., Chen, Y., Song, G., Han, S. T., Lin, C. T., Nan, J. and Yu, J., Extremely high thermal conductivity of carbon fiber/epoxy with synergistic effect of MXenes by freeze-drying, Compos. Commun., 19, 134-141 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2020.03.009
Hajian, S., Dinesh, M., Binu, B. N. and Massood, A. Z., MXene-based flexible sensors: A review, Front. Sens., 3, 10006749 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fsens.2022.1006749
Hao, S., Han, H., Yang, Z., Chen, M., Jiang, Y., Lu, G., Lun, D., En, H., Li, H., Liu, J., Wu, L., Wang, Z. and Wang, F., Recent Advancements on Photothermal Conversion and Antibacterial Applications over MXenes-Based Materials, Nano-Micro. Lett., 14(1), 178 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-022-00901-w
Harris, K. J., Bugnet, M., Micheal, N., Barsoum, M. W. and Gillian, G. R., Direct measurement of surface termination groups and their connectivity in the 2D MXene V2CTx using NMR spectroscopy, J. Phys. Chem. C, 119(24), 13713-13720 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b03038
Hassan, A., Yvon, S. and Sawan, M., GaN Integration Technology, an Ideal Candidate for High-Temperature Applications: A Review, IEEE Access, 6, 78790–78802 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2885285
Iravani, S. and Varma, R. S., MXene-based composites as nanozymes in biomedicine: a perspective, Nano-Micro Lett., 14(1), 213(2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-022-00958-7
Ji, C., Cui, H., Mi, H. and Yang, S., Applications of 2d mxenes for electrochemical energy conversion and storage, Energies (Basel), 14(23), 8183 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14238183
Jin, C. and Bai, Z., MXene-Based Textile Sensors for Wearable Applications, ACS Sens., 7(4), 929-950 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.2c00097
Kang, H., Han, L., Chen, S., Xie, S., Li, M., Fang, Q. and He, S., Research Progress on TwoDimensional Layered MXene/Elastomer Nanocomposites, Polym., 14(19), 4094 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194094
Kaul, A. B., Graphene and two-dimensional layered materials for device applications, IEEE, 1-4(2013).
https://doi.org/10.1109/NANO.2013.6720961
Kaul, A. B., Two-dimensional layered materials: Structure, properties, and prospects for device applications, J. Mater. Res., 29(3), 348–361 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2014.6
Kobayashi, T., Sun, Y., Prenger, K., Jiang, D., Micheal, N. and Merek, P., Nature of Terminating Hydroxyl Groups and Intercalating Water in Ti3C2TxMXenes: A Study by 1H Solid-State NMR and DFT Calculations, J. Phy. Chem. C., 124(25), 13649-13655 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c04744
Kumbhakar, P., Chowde, G. C. and Tiwary, C. S., Advance Optical Properties and Emerging Applications of 2D Materials, Front Mater., 8, 721514 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2021.721514
Kurra, N. and Yury, G., MXenes: From Fundamental Science to Emerging Applications, ECS Meeting Abstracts, MA2019-01(12), 815 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2019-01/12/815
Lalegani, D. M., Sales, R., Ali, Z., Hamed, Y. N. and Bodaghi, M., Soft pneumatic actuators with integrated resistive sensors enabled by multi-material 3D printing, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 128(9-10), 4207-4221 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12181-8
Lee, E., VahidMohammadi, A., Prorok, B. C., Yoon, Y. S., Beidaghi, M. and Kim, D. J., Room temperature gas sensing of two-dimensional titanium carbide (MXene), ACS Appl. Mater. Interf., 9(42), 37184-37190 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b11055
Li, M., Lu, J., Luo, K., Li, Y., Keke, C., Ke, C., Jie, Z., Rosen, J., Lars, H., Per, E., Per, P. O., Du, S., Chai, Z., Huang, Z. and Huang, Q., Element replacement approach by reaction with Lewis acidic molten salts to synthesize nanolaminated materials and MXenes, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 141(11), 4730–4737 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.9b00574
Li, Z. Y., Li, D. Y., Huang, L., Hu, R., Yang, T. and Yang, Y. H., An electrochemical aptasensor based on intelligent walking DNA nanomachine with cascade signal amplification powered by nuclease for Mucin 1 assay, Anal. Chimica Acta, 1214, 339964 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2022.339964
Lipatov, A., Lu, H., Mohamed, A., Babak, A., Alexei, G., Yury, G. and Alexander, S., Elastic properties of 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene monolayers and bilayers, Sci. Adv., 4(6), 0491(2018).
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat0491
Liu, G., Liu, S., Ma, K., Wang, H., Wang, X., Li, G. and Jin, W., Polyelectrolyte functionalized ti2ct x mxene membranes for pervaporation dehydration of isopropanol/water mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 59(10), 4732-4741 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.9b06881
Liu, Y., Siyu, Z., He, J., Zhang, Z. M. and Liu, Z., Recent Progress in the Fabrication, Properties, and Devices of Heterostructures Based on 2D Materials, Nanomicro Lett., 11(1), 13 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-019-0245-5
Mehdi, A. S., Aasi, A. and Balaji, P., Experimental and Theoretical Advances in MXene-Based Gas Sensors, ACS Omega, 6(4), 2450-2461 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c05766
Mehranfar, A., Khavani, M. and Mohamad, I., A molecular dynamic study on the ability of phosphorene for designing new sensor for SARS-CoV-2 detection, J. Mol. Liq., 345, 117852 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.117852
Meitong, O., Wang, X., Yu, L., Liu, C., Tao, W., Ji, X. and Mei, L., The Emergence and Evolution of Borophene, Adv. Sci., 8(12), 2001801 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202001801
Mirkhani, S. A., Ali, S. Z., Ehsan, A., Michael, N. and Sundararaj, U., High Dielectric Constant and Low Dielectric Loss via Poly (vinyl alcohol)/Ti3C2Tx MXene Nanocomposites, ACS Appl. Mater. Interf., 11(20), 18599-18608 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b00393
Naguib, M., Micheal, B. W. and Yury, G., Ten Years of Progress in the Synthesis and Development of MXenes, Adv. Mater., 33(39), 2103393 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202103393
Naguib, M., Saito, T., Lai, S., Rager, M. S., Tolga, A., Parans, P. M., Zhao, M. Q. and Yury, G., Ti3C2TX (MXene)-polyacrylamide nanocomposite films, RSC Adv., 6(76), 72069-72073 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra10384g
Natu, V. and Barsoum, M. W., Guidelines on the Intercalation of Ions and Molecules in MXenes, Wiley, 109-136 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119869528.ch6
Nhiem, L.T., Engineering Ti3C2Tx (titanium carbide) MXene-based composites and emerging applications: a mini review, RSC Adv., 16(27), 25116-25130 (2026).
https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ra08486e
Nielsen, L. E., Models for the Permeability of Filled Polymer Systems, J. Macromol. Sci. Part A - Chem., 1(5), 929-942 (1967).
https://doi.org/10.1080/10601326708053745
Novoselov, K. S. and Geim, A. K., The rise of graphene, Nat. Mater., 6(3), 183–191 (2007).
https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat1849
Oshima, M., Soft X-ray Nano-spectroscopy for Electronic Structures of Transition Metal Oxide Nano-structures, Appl. Sci. Converg. Technol., 23(6), 317–327(2014).
https://doi.org/10.5757/ASCT.2014.23.6.317
Peng, C., Wei, P., Xin, C., Yongli, Z., Zhu, F., Cao, Y., Wang, H., Yu, H. and Peng, F., A hydrothermal etching route to synthesis of 2D MXene (Ti3C2, Nb2C): Enhanced exfoliation and improved adsorption performance, Ceram. Int., 44(15), 18886-18893 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.07.124
Pillai, R., Balan, R., Holaday, D. and Janardhanan, J. P., Biosensing frontiers: MXenes and their composites, Am. Chem. Soc., 1442, 213-236 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2023-1442.ch009
Pinki, K., Anza, Kumar, R., Archana, K. and Ravi, K. S., Nanosensors for Monitoring and Detecting Nanoparticle Effects on Crops, J. Environ. Nanotechnol., 14(1), 37-51 (2025).
https://doi.org/10.13074/jent.2025.03.2511272
Pogorielov, M., Smyrnova, K., Kyrylenko, S., Gogotsi, O., Zahorodna, V. and Pogrebnjak, A., MXenes—A New Class of Two-Dimensional Materials: Structure, Properties and Potential Applications, Nanomater., 11(12), 3412 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11123412
Raghvendra, K. M., Nanostructured biomimetic, bioresponsive, and bioactive biomaterials, Elsevier, 35-65 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102205-4.00002-7
Rajapakse, M., Karki, B., Abu, U. O., Sahar, P., Musa, M. R. K., Shah, R. S. M., Yu, M., gamini, S. and Jacek, J. B., Intercalation as a versatile tool for fabrication, property tuning, and phase transitions in 2D materials, NPJ 2D Mater. Appl., 5(1), 30 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41699-021-00211-6
Rajavel, K., Luo, S., Wan, Y., Yu, X., Hu, Y., Zhu, P., Sun, R. and Wong, C., 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene/polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) nanocomposites for attenuation of electromagnetic radiation with excellent heat dissipation, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf., 129, 105693 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105693
Ranjan, P., Sahu, T. K., Rebti, B., Srkc, S. Y., Late, D. J., Kumar, P. and Vinu, A., Freestanding Borophene and Its Hybrids, Adv. Mater., 31(27), 1900353 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201900353
Ren, C. E., Hatzell, K. B., Alhabeb, M., Ling, Z., Mahmoud, K. A. and Gogotsi, Y., Charge-and size-selective ion sieving through Ti3C2Tx MXene membranes, J. Phy. Chem. Lett., 6(20), 4026-4031 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b01895
Roy, K., Medini, P., Srijit, G., Sai, T. P., Ramalingam, G., Srinivasan, R. and Ghosh, A., Graphene–MoS2 hybrid structures for multifunctional photoresponsive memory devices, Nat. Nanotechnol., 8(11), 826–830(2013).
https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2013.206
Sarycheva, A. and Yury, G., Raman Spectroscopy Analysis of the Structure and Surface Chemistry of Ti3C2Tx MXene, Chem. Mater., 32(8), 3480-3488 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.0c00359
Sarycheva, A., Shanmugasundaram, M., Krayev, A. and Gogotsi, Y., Tip-enhanced Raman scattering imaging of single-to few-layer Ti3C2Tx MXene, ACS Nano, 16(4), 6858-6865 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c01868
Shah, A. A., Hasan, F., Hameed, A. and Ahmed, S., Biological degradation of plastics: A comprehensive review, Biotechnol. Adv., 26(3), 246–265 (2008).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.12.005
Sheng, X., Zhao, Y., Li, Z. and Lu, X., Properties of two-dimensional Ti3C2 MXene/thermoplastic polyurethane nanocomposites with effective reinforcement via melt blending, Compos. Sci. Technol., 181, 107710 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2019.107710
Shi, Y., Liu, C., Liu, L., Fu, L., Yu, B., Lv, Y., Yang, F. and Song, P., Strengthening, toughing and thermally stable ultra-thin MXene nanosheets/polypropylene nanocomposites via nanoconfinement, Chem. Eng. J., 378, 122267 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.122267
Siwal, S. S., Karamveer, S., Kirti, M., Kaur, H., Saini, A. K., Vipin, S., Vo, D. V. N., Hamed, N. Y. and Thakur, V. K., Novel synthesis methods and applications of MXene-based nanomaterials (MBNs) for hazardous pollutants degradation: Future perspectives, Chemosphere, 293, 133542 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133542
Stajic, J., Dirac cones in a boron monolayer, Sci., 355(6331), 12787-1279 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.355.6331.1278-g
Sun, R., Zhang, H. B., Liu, J., Xie, X., Yang, R., Li, Y., Hong, S. and Yu, Z. Z., Highly Conductive Transition Metal Carbide/Carbonitride (MXene)@polystyrene Nanocomposites Fabricated by Electrostatic Assembly for Highly Efficient Electromagnetic Interference Shielding, Adv. Funct. Mater., 27(45), 1702807 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201702807
Taloub, N., Henniche, A., Liu, L., Li, J., Nahla, R., Mohammad, H. and Huang, Y., Improving the mechanical properties, UV and hydrothermal aging resistance of PIPD fiber using MXene (Ti3C2(OH)2) nanosheets, Compos. B Eng., 163, 260-271 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.007
Thakur, A., Kim, J., Wyatt, B. C., Gogotsi, Y. and Anasori, B., Composition–structure–property relationships in MXenes, Nat. Rev. Mater., 11(7), 516-531 (2026).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-026-00911-9
Tripathy, D. B. and Pradhan, S., MXenes-polymer nanocomposites: sustainable solutions for biomedical applications, Int. J. Polym. Mater. Polym. Biomater., 75(1), 23-48 (2026).
https://doi.org/10.1080/00914037.2025.2493919
Tu, S., Qiu, J., Zhang, X. and Husam, A. N., Large Dielectric Constant Enhancement in MXene Percolative Polymer Composites, ACS Nano., 12(4), 3369-3377 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.7b08895
Ullah, S., Najam, T., ur Rehman, A., Alarfaji, S. S., Ahmad, M. A., Riaz, S., Akkinepally, B., Shah, S. S. A. and Nazir, M. A., MXene nanomaterials: Synthesis, properties and applications in energy and environment sector, J. Alloys Compd., 1001, 175172 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.175172
Urbankowski, P., Anasori, B., Hantanasirisakul, K., Yang, L., Zhang, L., Haines, B., May, S. J., Billinge, S. J. and Gogotsi, Y., 2D molybdenum and vanadium nitrides synthesized by ammoniation of 2D transition metal carbides (MXenes), Nanoscale, 9(45), 17722-17730 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1039/c7nr0672.1f
Vaia, R. A., Ali, J., Asra, H., Neher, G., Nepal, D., Ruth, P., Joshua, K. W. and Subramanian, R., Halogen etch of Ti3AlC2 MAX phase for mxene fabrication, ACS Nano., 15(2), 2771-2777 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c08630
Vogel, E. M. and Joshua, R. A., Two-dimensional layered transition-metal dichalcogenides for versatile properties and applications, MRS Bull., 40(7), 558–563 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2015.120
Wang, L., Hua, Q., Song, P., Yali, Z., Lu, Y., Liang, C., Kong, J., Chen, L. and Gu, J., 3D Ti3C2Tx MXene/C hybrid foam/epoxy nanocomposites with superior electromagnetic interference shielding performances and robust mechanical properties, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf., 123, 293-300 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.05.030
Wassei, J. K. and Kaner, R. B., Graphene, a promising transparent conductor, Mater. Today, 13(3), 52–59 (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-7021(10)70034-1
Wei, Y., Peng, Z., Razium, S. A., Zhu, Q. and Xu, B., Advances in the Synthesis of 2D MXenes, Adv. Mater., 33(39), 2103148 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202103148
Xin, M., Li, J., Ma, Z., Pan, L. and Shi, Y., MXenes and Their Applications in Wearable Sensors, Front. Chem., 8, 297 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2020.00297
Yankowitz, M., Xue, J. and LeRoy, B. J., Graphene on hexagonal boron nitride, J. Phy. Condensed Matter., 26, 303201 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1088/0953-8984/26/30/303201
Yazdanparast, S., Sina, S., Annika, F. W., Tucker, G. J. and Geoff, L. B., Synthesis and Surface Chemistry of 2D TiVC Solid-Solution MXenes, ACS Appl. Mater. Interf., 12(17), 20129-20137 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c03181
Ying, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, X., Mao, Y., Cao, W., Hu, P. and Peng, X., Two-dimensional titanium carbide for efficiently reductive removal of highly toxic chromium (VI) from water, ACS Appl. Mater. Interf., 7(3), 1795-1803 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1021/am5074722
Yoon, J., Shin, M., Lim, J., Lee, J. Y. and Choi, J. W., Recent advances in MXene nanocomposite-based biosensors, Biosens., 10(11), 185(2020).
https://doi.org/10.3390/bios10110185
Zamhuri, A., Lim, G. P., Ma, N. L., Tee, K. S. and Soon, C. F., MXene in the lens of biomedical engineering: synthesis, applications and future outlook, Biomed. Eng. Online., 20(1), 33 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-021-00873-9
Zhang, J., Liu, Y., Lv, Z., Zhao, T., Li, P., Sun, Y. and Wang, J., Sulfonated Ti3C2Tx to construct proton transfer pathways in polymer electrolyte membrane for enhanced conduction, Solid State Ion, 310, 100-111 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssi.2017.08.013
Zhang, L., Song, W., Liu, H., Ding, H., Yan, Y. and Chen, R., Influencing factors on synthesis and properties of MXene: a review, Processes, 10(9), 1744 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10091744
Zhao, X., Zha, X. J., Tang, L. S., Pu, J. H., Ke, K., Bao, R. Y., Liu, Z. Y., Yang, M. B. and Wei, Y., Self-assembled core-shell polydopamine@MXene with synergistic solar absorption capability for highly efficient solar-to-vapor generation, Nano Res., 13(1), 255-264 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-019-2608-0
Zheng, Z., Guo, C., Wang, E., He, Z., Liang, T., Yang, T. and Hou, X., The oxidation and thermal stability of two-dimensional transition metal carbides and/or carbonitrides (MXenes) and the improvement based on their surface state, Inorg. Chem. Front., 8(9), 2164-2182 (2021).
