Invasive Biomass to Functional Nanoadsorbent: Parthenium hysterophorus-derived Magnetic Nanoparticles for Efficient Removal of Imidacloprid from Aqueous Systems
J. Environ. Nanotechnol., Volume 15, No 2 (June 2026) pp. 694-710
Abstract
This study presents a sustainable approach for the synthesis of magnetic nano-adsorbents derived from the
invasive plant Parthenium hysterophorus for the efficient removal of the pesticide imidacloprid from aqueous systems. A
green co-precipitation method was employed using plant extract as a reducing and stabilizing agent to fabricate biofunctionalized Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles.Comprehensive characterization confirmed the successful formation of crystalline,superparamagnetic nanoparticles with enhanced surface functionality.The presence of phytochemical-derived functional groups significantly improved adsorption performance compared to chemically synthesized counterparts.Batch adsorption studies revealed that the removal efficiency was strongly influenced by pH, contact time, and adsorbent dosage, with optimal performance observed under near-neutral conditions. The green synthesized nanoparticles exhibited a maximum adsorption capacity of 105 mg/g and a surface area of 82.3 m²/g, significantly outperforming chemically synthesized counterparts. The adsorption process followed pseudo-second-order kinetics (R² > 0.99) and Langmuir isotherm behavior. Reusability studies showed retention of 68% efficiency after five cycles, confirming good stability. Catalytic degradation studies revealed 76% degradation efficiency within 90 minutes with a rate constant (k) of 0.018 min⁻¹, confirming the synergistic adsorption–degradation capability of the synthesized nanomaterial.
Full Text
Reference
Abboud, M., Youssef, S., Podlecki, J., Habchi, R., Germanos, G. and Foucaran, A., Superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles, synthesis and surface modification, Mater. Sci. Semiconductor Proce., 39, 641-648(2015).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2015.05.035
Ahsan, A., Farooq, M. A., Ahsan, B. A., Parveen, A., Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Parthenium hysterophorus: optimization, characterization and in vitro therapeutic evaluation, Mol., 25(15), 3324(2020).
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25153324
Alawfi, A. A., Henari, F. Z., Younis, A. and Manaa, H., Bio-inspired synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Hibiscus Tiliaceus L. flower extracts for improved optical characteristics, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron., 31(23), 21073-21081(2020).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-020-04619-6
Alshammari, A. F., Ouni, S., Bouzidi, M., Alshammari, A. S., Alzahrani, E. A., Alismail, H., Almarri, H. M., Chaaben, N., Anjum, D. H., Shakfa, M. K. and Khan, N. A., Green synthesis and enhanced photocatalytic activity of ZnSe nanoparticles capped with Artemisia herba-alba and calligonum plants extracts, Sci. Rep., 16, 8674(2026).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39998-z
Awwad, A. M. and Salem, N. M., A green and facile approach for synthesis of magnetite nanoparticles, Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 2(6), 208-213(2013).
https://doi.org/10.5923/j.nn.201206.09
Badran, A. M., Utra, U., Yussof, N. S. and Bashir, M. J., Advancements in adsorption techniques for sustainable water purification: a focus on lead removal, Sep., 10(11), 565(2023).
https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10110565
Barco-Bonilla, N., Romero-González, R., Plaza-Bolaños, P., Frenich, A. G. and Vidal, J. L., Analysis and study of the distribution of polar and non-polar pesticides in wastewater effluents from modern and conventional treatments, J. Chrom. A., 1217(50), 7817-7825(2010).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2010.10.011
Bello, M. M. and Raman, A. A., Synergy of adsorption and advanced oxidation processes in recalcitrant wastewater treatment, Environ. Chem. Lett., 17(2), 1125-1142(2019).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-00842-0
Bonmatin, J. M., Giorio, C., Girolami, V., Goulson, D., Kreutzweiser, D. P., Krupke, C., Liess, M., Long, E., Marzaro, M., Mitchell, E. A. and Noome, D. A., Environmental fate and exposure; neonicotinoids and fipronil, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 22(1), 35-67(2015).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3332-7
Borthakur, P. P., Nanomaterials in environmental pollution mitigation: A review of progress and future potential, Ind. J. Nat. Sci., 16(91), 98646-98663(2025)
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCIS.2020.08.100
Casillas, A., De, T. A., Navarro, I., Sanz, P. and Angeles, M. M., Environmental risk assessment of neonicotinoids in surface water, Sci. Tot. Environ., 809, 151161(2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151161
Castro-Riquelme, C. L., López-Maldonado, E. A., Ochoa-Terán, A., Pina-Luis, G. and Lebea, N. N., Enhanced detection of pesticides: evaluating monocarbamoylcarboxylic acids modified with amines for glyphosate and dicamba sensitivity, Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Mol. Biomol. Spectros., 340, 126315(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2025.126315
Comanescu, C., Recent advances in surface functionalization of magnetic nanoparticles, Coat., 13(10), 1772(2023).
https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13101772
Da Silva, S. L., Da Silva, A., Honório, K. M., Marangoni, S., Toyama, M. H. and Da Silva, A. B., The influence of electronic, steric and hydrophobic properties of flavonoid compounds in the inhibition of the xanthine oxidase, J. Mol. Struct. THEOCHEM, 684(1-3), 1-7(2004).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theochem.2004.04.003
Das, C., Ghosh, N. N., Pulhani, V., Biswas, G. and Singhal, P., Bio-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles for cost-effective adsorption of U (vi): experimental and theoretical investigation, RSC Adv., 13(22), 15015-23(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ra00799e
Dong, X., Chu, Y., Tong. Z., Sun, M., Meng, D., Yi, X., Gao, T., Wang, M. and Duan, J., Mechanisms of adsorption and functionalization of biochar for pesticides: A review, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safe., 272, 116019(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116019
Dražević, E., Košutić, K., Fingler, S. and Drevenkar, V., Removal of pesticides from the water and their adsorption on the reverse osmosis membranes of defined porous structure, Desalin. Water Treat., 30(1-3), 1-10(2011).
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2011.1959
Elia, P., Zach, R., Hazan, S., Kolusheva, S., Porat, Z. E. and Zeiri, Y., Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using plant extracts as reducing agents, Int. J. Nanomed., 9, 4007-4021(2014).
https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S57343
Hu, Q., Ma, S., He, Z., Liu, H. and Pei, X., A revisit on intraparticle diffusion models with analytical solutions: Underlying assumption, application scope and solving method, J. Water Process Eng., 60, 105241(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105241
Kalam, S., Abu-Khamsin, S. A., Kamal, M. S. and Patil, S., Surfactant adsorption isotherms: A review, ACS omega, 6(48), 32342-32348(2021).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c04661
Kohli, R. K., Batish, D. R., Singh, H. P. and Dogra, K. S., Status, invasiveness and environmental threats of three tropical American invasive weeds (Parthenium hysterophorus L., Ageratum conyzoides L., Lantana camara L.) in India, Bio. Invasions, 8(7), 1501-1510(2006).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-005-5842-1
Kudlek, E., Identification of degradation by-products of selected pesticides during oxidation and chlorination processes, Eco. Chem. Eng. S., 26(3), 571-581(2019).
https://doi.org/10.1515/eces-2019-0042
Kulkarni, S. One Health Implications of Agrochemicals and Their Eco-Benign Substitutes, One health Implications Agrochem. Sustain. Alternat., 34, 161-179(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3439-3_6
Kundoo, A. A., Dar, S. A., Mushtaq, M., Bashir, Z., Dar, M. S., Gul, S., Ali, M. T. and Gulzar, S., Role of neonicotinoids in insect pest management: A review, J. Entomol. Zool. Stud., 6(1), 333-339(2018).
https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55321918
Law, S. E., Electrostatic pesticide spraying: concepts and practice, IEEE, 30(2), 160-168(2008).
Lima-Fernandes, E., Bundschuh, M., Bakanov, N., Englert, D., Schulz, R. and Schäfer, R. B., Effects of a systemic pesticide along an aquatic tri-trophic food chain, Bulletin Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 103(4), 507-514(2019).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-019-02696-w
Longo, G. S. and Szleifer, I., Adsorption and protonation of peptides and proteins in pH responsive gels, J. Phy. Appl. Phy., 49(32), 323001(2016).
https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/49/32/323001
Ma, Y., Chen, S., Qi, Y., Yang, L., Wu, L., He, L., Li, P., Qi, X., Gao, F., Ding, Y. and Zhang, Z., An efficient, green and sustainable potassium hydroxide activated magnetic corn cob biochar for imidacloprid removal, Chemosphere, 291, 132707(2022).
Maleki, A., Zand, P., Mohseni, Z. and Firouzi-Haji, R., Green composite nanostructure (Fe3O4@ PEGSO3H): Preparation, characterization and catalytic performance in the efficient synthesis of β-amino carbonyl compounds at room temperature, Nano-Struc. Nano-Obj., 16, 31-37(2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2018.03.012
Masoudi, R., Moghimi, H., Azin, E. and Taheri, R. A., Adsorption of cadmium from aqueous solutions by novel Fe3O4-newly isolated Actinomucor sp. bio-nanoadsorbent: functional group study, Art. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol., 46(sup3), 1092-1101(2018).
https://doi.org/10.1080/21691401.2018.1533841
Mohan, A., Rajendran, S. and Palani. N., Sustainable synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using phytochemicals: mechanisms, functionalization strategies, applications and future perspectives, Mater. Sci. Eng., 9(2), 36-54(2026).
https://doi.org/10.15406/mseij.2025.09.00253
Munir, H., Bilal, M., Mulla, S. I., Abbas, K. H., Iqbal, H. M., Plant-mediated green synthesis of nanoparticles, Adv. Green Syn., (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67884-5_4
Nguyen, H. S., Nguyen, T. B., Luong, T. T., Vu, N. T., Biologically synthesized Fe 0-based nanoparticles and their application trends as catalysts in the treatment of chlorinated organic compounds: a review, Environ. Sci. Nano12(3), 1767-1788(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1039/D4EN00843J
Nørskov, J. K., Bligaard, T., Hvolbæk, B., Abild-Pedersen, F., Chorkendorff, I., Christensen, C. H., The nature of the active site in heterogeneous metal catalysis, Chem. Soc. Rev., 37(10), 2163-2171(2008).
Oh, T. K., Choi, B., Shinogi, Y. and Chikushi, J., Effect of pH conditions on actual and apparent fluoride adsorption by biochar in aqueous phase, Water, Air, Soil Pollut., 223(7), 3729-3738(2012).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-012-1144-2
Osman, A. I., Zhang, Y., Farghali, M., Rashwan, A. K., Eltaweil, A. S., Abd, El-Monaem, E. M., Mohamed, I. M., Badr, M. M., Ihara, I., Rooney, D. W., Yap, P. S., Synthesis of green nanoparticles for energy, biomedical, environmental, agricultural, and food applications: A review, Environ. Chem. Lett., 22(2), 841-887(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01682-3
Ovejero, J. G., Cabrera, D., Carrey, J., Valdivielso, T., Salas, G. and Teran, F. J., Effects of inter-and intra-aggregate magnetic dipolar interactions on the magnetic heating efficiency of iron oxide nanoparticles, Phy. Chem. Chem. Phy., 18(16), 10954-10963(2016).
Pang, S., Lin, Z., Zhang, W., Mishra, S., Bhatt, P. and Chen, S., Insights into the microbial degradation and biochemical mechanisms of neonicotinoids, Front. Microbio., 11, 868(2020).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.0086
Parsaie, A., Baezat, M. R. and Rahbar, N., Evaluation of imidacloprid adsorption on a new activated carbon based nanocomposite consisting of magnetite and copper oxide nanoparticles: Adsorption modelling, optimisation, and characterisation, Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 104(3), 566-583(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2026347
Pozzi, M., Jonak, D. S., Kuntze, M., Bading, J., Rüßbült, J. S., Fabig, C., Langfeldt, M., Schulz, F., Horcajada, P. and Parak, W. J., Visualization of the high surface-to-volume ratio of nanomaterials and its consequences, J. Chem. Edu., 101(8), 3146-3155(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.4c00089
Riva, M., Bell, D. M., Hansen, A. M., Drozd, G. T., Zhang, Z., Gold, A., Imre, D., Surratt, J. D., Glasius, M. and Zelenyuk, A., Effect of Organic Coatings, Humidity and Aerosol Acidity on Multiphase Chemistry of Isoprene Epoxydiols, Environ. Sci. Technol., 50(11), 5580-5588(2016).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b06050
Roodt, A. P., Huszarik, M., Entling, M. H. and Schulz, R., Aquatic-terrestrial transfer of neonicotinoid insecticides in riparian food webs, J. Hazard. Mater., 455, 131635(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131635
Shahwan, T., Sirriah, S. A., Nairat, M., Boyacı, E., Eroğlu, A. E., Scott, T. B. and Hallam, K. R., Green synthesis of iron nanoparticles and their application as a Fenton-like catalyst for the degradation of aqueous cationic and anionic dyes, Chem. Eng. J., 172(1), 258-266(2011).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.05.103
Sharma, Y. C., Srivastava, V., Singh, V. K., Kaul, S. N. and Weng, C. H., Nano‐adsorbents for the removal of metallic pollutants from water and wastewater, Environ. Technol., 30(6), 583-609(2009).
https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330902838080
Simeonidis, K., Gkinis, T., Tresintsi, S., Martinez-Boubeta, C., Vourlias, G., Tsiaoussis, I., Stavropoulos, G., Mitrakas, M. and Angelakeris, M., Magnetic separation of hematite-coated Fe3O4 particles used as arsenic adsorbents, Chem. Eng. J., 168(3), 1008-1015(2011).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.01.074
Slavov, L., Abrashev, M. V., Merodiiska, T., Gelev, C., Vandenberghe, R. E., Markova-Deneva, I. and Nedkov, I., Raman spectroscopy investigation of magnetite nanoparticles in ferrofluids, J. Mag. Mater., 322(14), 1904-1911(2010).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmmm.2010.01.005
Tefera, T., Allelopathic effects of Parthenium hysterophorus extracts on seed germination and seedling growth of Eragrostis tef, J. Agronomy Crop Sci., 188(5), 306-310(2002).
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-037X.2002.00564.x
Vallabha, M. S., Nagraj, P. C., Sanjeev, N. O., Mahadev, M., Devadas, R. and Govindappa, V., Valorization of Parthenium hysterophorus weed into biochar for adsorptive removal of industrial dyes from multi-pollutant aqueous systems, Biomass Convers. Biorefine., 15(17), 24227-24241(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05534-0
Wang, X., Wang, T., Song, C., Zhang, Y., Yang, K., Wang, J., Xu, X. and He, F., Competitive adsorption behavior of As (V) and Sb (V) on Hematite: Facet and pH dependent coordination affinity and role of outer-sphere complexes, Separat. Purifi. Technol., 354, 128916(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.128916
Wen, Y. Z., Xue, Y. Q., Cui, Z. X. and Wang, Y., Thermodynamics of nanoadsorption from solution: theoretical and experimental research, J. Chem. Thermodyn., 80, 112-118(2015).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jct.2014.08.013
Yao, C., Chen, T., A film-diffusion-based adsorption kinetic equation and its application, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 119, 87-92(2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2017.01.004
You, J., Wang, L., Zhao, Y. and Bao, W., A review of amino-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles for water treatment: Features and prospects, J. Clean. Prod., 281, 124668(2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124668
Yousaf, Z. and Saleh, N., Advanced concept of green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles by reducing phytochemicals, Nanobot., 17-36(2018).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77119-9_2
Zhang, Y., Zeng, D., Li, L., Hong, X., Li-Byarlay, H. and Luo, S., Assessing the toxicological interaction effects of imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and chlorpyrifos on Bombus terrestris based on the combination index, Sci. Rep., 12(1), 6301(2022).
