Performance and Emission Optimization of Spirulina platensis Biodiesel Blends with Green-synthesized CeO₂ Nanoparticles for Low-emission Diesel Engines
J. Environ. Nanotechnol., Volume 15, No 2 (June 2026) pp. 512-529
Abstract
Biomass-derived biodiesel is a sustainable and renewable fuel alternative with significant potential for sustainable energy applications. The depletion of fossil fuels and stringent emission regulations necessitate the development of high-efficiency alternative fuels for compression ignition engines. Spirulina platensis microalgae biodiesel was produced through transesterification and blended with diesel at 25% and 45% proportions, followed by the incorporation of green-synthesized CeO₂ nanoparticles derived from Moringa oleifera leaf extract. The bio-assisted synthesis yielded uniformly distributed nanocrystalline CeO₂ particles with an average particle size of 40 ± 5 nm, confirmed by FTIR and SEM analyses. The novelty of this work lies in the combined application of Spirulina platensis biodiesel, bio-mediated CeO₂ nano-additives, and statistical optimization to enhance diesel engine combustion and emission characteristics. Engine performance and emission characteristics were evaluated in a single-cylinder, 3.7 kW diesel engine operating at 1500 rpm under varying load conditions, and statistical optimization was performed using Response Surface Methodology with Central Composite Design. The optimized blend achieved a minimum specific fuel consumption of 0.275 kg/kWh and carbon monoxide (CO) emission of 0.105 vol%, along with significant hydrocarbon reduction. The optimized blend achieved a minimum specific fuel consumption of 0.275 kg/kWh and carbon monoxide (CO) emission of 0.105 vol%, along with significant hydrocarbon reduction. ANOVA results confirmed CeO₂ dosage as the most influential parameter governing combustion improvement and emission mitigation. The integrated fuel formulation improved combustion characteristics and reduced harmful emissions, demonstrating its potential for cleaner diesel engine applications.
Full Text
Reference
Alotaibi, B., Gaafar, S. S., Aljuailan, R., Alawadhi, H. L. A., Alsalhi, H., Alharbi, H., Alfaraidy, R. S., Smran, A. A. A. and Niazi, F. H., Photochemically Activated Microbubble Emulsion, Nd: Yap Laser, and Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles as Canal Disinfectants on Push-Out Bond Strength of Sealer to Root Dentin, Smear Layer, and Antibacterial Efficacy, Micros. Res. Tech., 88(6), 1654–1663(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1002/jemt.24802
Anwar, M., Biodiesel feedstocks selection strategies based on economic, technical, and sustainable aspects, Fuel, 283, 119204(2021a).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119204
Anwar, M., Potential vs prevalent vs popular vs proven biodiesel feedstocks: A critical 4P selection process, Fuel, 298, 120712(2021b).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120712
Arun, A., Maleki, B., Prakash, R. M., Mounesh, N., Pramoda, P. and Kalanakoppal, V. Y., Exploitation of Annona reticulata leaf extract for the synthesis of CeO2 nanoparticles as catalyst for the production of biodiesel using seed oil thereof, Energy, 298, 131335(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.131335
Azam, S. and Park, S. S., Impact of Biosynthesized CeO2 Nanoparticle Concentration on the Tribological, Rheological, and Thermal Performance of Lubricating Oil, Lubricant., 12(11), 400 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12110400
Canan, A., Enrichment of 3rd generation biodiesel/diesel blends with optimum boron oxide for cleaner diesel emissions by multi-objective optimization using RSM, Environ. Res., 276, 121472(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.121472
Çeli̇k, M., Bayindirli, C. and İlhak, M. İ., Investigation of the Performance and Emissions of an Engine Operated with CeO2 Nano Additive Doped Biodiesel, Int. J. Automotive Sci. Technol., 6(2), 113–119 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1063986
Chhikara, A., Dhingra, A. K., Chhabra, D. and Kumar, P., Optimization of biodiesel production of spirulina-platensis algae biomass using RSM integrated with whale optimization algorithm, Ind. J. Eng. Mater. Sci., 31(5), 750–758 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.56042/ijems.v31i5.10448
De Souza, D. S., Lomeu, A., de Oliveira Moreira, O. B., De Oliveira, M. A. L. and Mendonça, H. V. D., New methods to increase microalgae biomass in anaerobic cattle wastewater and the effects on lipids production, Biomass Bioenergy, 176, 106915(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2023.106915
Elnajjar, E., Purayil, S. T. P., Alnuaimi, F., Al Khawaja, H., Shaikhoun, L., Arnaoud, N. and Almutawa, S., Mechanistic investigation of efficient cell disruption methods for lipid extraction from various macro and micro species of algae, Biores. Technol. Rep., 22, 101482 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101482
Elumalai, R., Krishnaiah, R., Elumalai, E. P., Saboor, S., C. C. A. and Hussain, F., Investigation into the Ideal Concoction for Performance and Emissions Enhancement of Jatropha Biodiesel-Diesel with CuO Nanoparticles Using Response Surface Methodology, ACS Omega, 8(42), 39067–39079(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c03890
Farrokheh, A., Tahvildari, K. and Nozari, M., Biodiesel production from the Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis microalgae by electrolysis using CaO/KOH-Fe3O4 and KF/KOH-Fe3O4 as magnetic nanocatalysts, Biomass Convers. Biorefine., 12(2), 403–417 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-020-00688-z
George, R. R., Ağbulut, Ü., Preno, K. C., Alex, Y., Sailesh, K. S., Afghan, K. S., Jilte, R., Linul, E. and Asif, M., Impact of synthesizing surfactant-modified catalytic ceria nanoparticles on the performance and environmental behaviors of coconut oil/diesel-fueled CI engine: An optimization attempt, Energy, 295, 130825(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.130825
Jayabal, R., Environmental impact of adding hybrid nanoparticles and hydrogen to the algae biodiesel-diesel blend on engine emissions, Process Safe. Environ. Protect., 198, 107102(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2025.107102
Jegan, C. D., Selvakumaran, T., Karthe, M., Hemachandu, P., Gopinathan, R., Sathish, T. and Ağbulut, Ü., Influences of various metal oxide-based nanosized particles-added algae biodiesel on engine characteristics, Energy, 284, 128633(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.128633
Kumar, S., Dinesha, P. and Khan, N., Enhancement of Combustion Behaviour of Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel Fuelled Engine using Metallic Oxide Nanoparticle with Varying Volume Concentration: An Experimental Study, Int. J. Renew. Energy Res., 11(1), 101–107(2021).
Abirami, M. and Das, D., Sustainable energy transitions: Evaluating microalgal biodiesel feedstocks using multi-criteria decision-making techniques, 13, 4163–4181(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2025.03.027
Maheswaran, R. and Uthranarayan, C., Effect of Photosynthetic Bacteria Based Feedstock and Temperature on Biodiesel Yield Using Microwave Assisted Transesterification with an Application of Box Behnken Supported Response Surface Methodology, J. Chilean Chem. Soc., 67(3), 5636–5642(2022).
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-97072022000305636
Manimaran, R., Optimization of Azadirachta indica leaf extract mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles synthesis, characterization, and its applications, 204, 117304(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117304
Oni, B. A., Sanni, S. E., Ibegbu, A. J. and Oguntade, T. I., Authentication of Styrax officinalis L. methyl ester nanoparticulate fuel-system’s suitability in powering CI engines, Indus. Crops Prod., 181, 114833(2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.114833
Palanisamy, K. M., Bhuyar, P., Ab Rahim, M. H., Govindan, N. and Maniam, G. P., Cultivation of Microalgae Spirulina platensis Biomass Using Palm Oil Mill Effluent for Phycocyanin Productivity and Future Biomass Refinery Attributes, Int. J. Energy Res., 2023, 1-9(2023).
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/2257271
Polat, F., Sarıdemir, S., Gad, M. S., El-Shafay, A. S. and Ağbulut, Ü., Enhancing diesel engine performance, combustion, and emissions reductions under the effect of cerium oxide nanoparticles with hydrogen addition to biodiesel fuel, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 83, 884–896(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.08.031
Rajasekaran, M., Krishnamoorthi, S. and Vijayaragavan, M., An experimental investigation of the effects of blending camphor oil infused with jack fruit biodiesel and nanoparticles on the performance, combustion, and exhaust emissions of a compression ignition engine, Proce. Institute Mech. Eng. Part E J. Process Mech. Eng., 239(6), 3460–3468(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1177/09544089231225750
Rudreshappa, G. E., Chennabasappa, M., Sreenivasa, S., Kumar, S. V., Yatish, K. V., Nagaraju, G., Suresh Kumar, H. M. S. and Kumar, D. B. A., Green Synthesis of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles, Antibacterial Studies and as Catalyst for the Conversion of Cotton Seed Oil into Biodiesel., Asian J. Chem., 34(9), 2415–2423(2022).
https://doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2022.23607
Saravanan, A., Kings, A. J., Miriam, L. R. M. and Rimal Isaac, R. S. R., RSM-based comparative experimental study of sustainable biodiesel synthesis from different 2G feedstocks using magnetic nanocatalyst CaFe2O4, Environ. Develop. Sustain., 26(2), 3097–3126(2024).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02761-1
Sathish, T., Ağbulut, Ü., George, S. M., Ramesh, K., Saravanan, R., Roberts, K. L., Sharma, P., Asif, M. and Hoang, A. T., Waste to fuel: Synergetic effect of hybrid nanoparticle usage for the improvement of CI engine characteristics fuelled with waste fish oils, Energy, 275, 127397(2023a).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127397
Savaş, A., Uslu, S. and Şener, R., Optimization of performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with MgCO3 nanoparticle doped second generation biodiesel from jojoba by using response surface methodology (RSM), Fuel, 381, 133658(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.133658
Sengodan, N., Selvaraju, M., Venugopal, K. and Raja, T., Performance and Analysis of RCCI Combustion using Gasoline and Jatropha Curcas Biodiesel for Enhanced Efficiency and Reduced Emissions in CI Engines, Int. J. Veh. Struct. Syst., 17(3), 506–519 (2025).
https://doi.org/10.4273/ijvss.17.3.20
Sriariyanun, M., Baranitharan, P., Venkatesh, S., Rajeshkumar, K. and Kavimani, V., Manufacturing and mechanical characterization of alkali-treated Borassus fruit natural fiber with cellulose acetate synthetic fiber reinforced polymer composite: selection of optimum configuration using CRITIC-integrated EDAS soft computing techniques, J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manage., 27(2), 880–897(2025).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-024-02142-y
Sathish, T., Ağbulut, Ü., George, S. M., Ramesh, K., Roberts, K. L., Sharma, P., Asif, M. and Hoang, A. T., Waste to fuel: Synergetic effect of hybrid nanoparticle usage for the improvement of CI engine characteristics fuelled with waste fish oils, Energy, 275, 127397 (2023b).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127397
Vijaya, K. P., Bragadeshwaran, B., Senthil, K. M., Vignesh, R., Bhasker, J. P. and Kumar, A. N., Evaluation of performance, emissions and combustion attributes of CI engine using palmyra biodiesel blend with distinct compression ratios, EGR rates and nano-particles, Fuel, 321, 124092(2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124092
Zhu, C., Li, D., Zhang, H., Zhang, D., Su, N. and Xu, F., Effect of montmorillonite-loaded CeO2 nanocomposites with different CeO2 contents on thermal-oxidative and ultraviolet aging properties of asphalt, Constru. Build. Mater., 507, 145057 (2026).
