Algae-derived Nanocellulose: A Sustainable Resource for Advanced Material Applications
J. Environ. Nanotechnol., Volume 14, No 3 (September 2025) pp. 96-107
Abstract
In recent years, research efforts have increasingly focused on the development of products derived from biodegradable materials. Among these, nanocellulose has emerged as a highly promising green material, gaining traction across a variety of industries due to its remarkable properties. Its advantageous attributes, including a high aspect ratio, biocompatibility, renewability, and exceptional mechanical strength, have captured widespread interest. With the rapid growth in industrial production, some companies are now manufacturing nanocellulose on a scale of tons per day, signaling its growing commercial viability across various sectors. These cellulose-based nanomaterials possess unique structural features that enable surface chemistry modifications, thereby advancing the development of composites, films, and coatings. Moreover, they have demonstrated significant potential in engineering and biomedical applications. Nanocellulose can be sourced from plants, bacteria, and algae, and is classified into cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC). The remarkable attributes of algae-derived nanocellulose are primarily linked to its exceptional purity and unparalleled quality. Algae biomass offers distinct advantages over conventional lignocellulosic sources for nanocellulose production, particularly in terms of availability, ease of processing, and material quality. However, its utilization remains limited compared to lignocellulose-based alternatives. This review presents an in-depth exploration of extraction methodologies for algal nanocellulose and its versatile applications across a wide range of industries.
Full Text
Reference
Abitbol, T., Rivkin, A., Cao, Y., Nevo, Y., Abraham, E., Shalom, -B. T., Lapidot, S. and Shoseyov, O., Nanocellulose, a tiny fiber with huge applications, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 39, 76–88 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2016.01.002
Achaby, E. M., Kassab, Z., Aboulkas, A., Gaillard, C. and Barakat, A., Reuse of red algae waste for the production of cellulose nanocrystals and its application in polymer nanocomposites, Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 106, 681–691 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.08.067
Ahankari, S. S., Subhedar, A. R., Bhadauria, S. S. and Dufresne, A., Nanocellulose in food packaging: A review, Carbohydr. Polym., 255, 117479 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117479
Arad, S. M. and Ontman, -L. O., Red microalgal cell-wall polysaccharides: biotechnological aspects, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 21(3), 358–364 (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2010.02.008
Badaani, A. A. A., Hifney, A. F., Adam, M. S. and Gomaa, M., Low-cost biosorption of Fe(II) and Fe(III) from single and binary solutions using Ulva Lactuca-derived cellulose nanocrystals–graphene oxide composite film, Sci. Rep., 13(1), 6422 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33386-7
Baghel, R. S., Reddy, C. R. K. and Singh, R. P., Seaweed-based cellulose: Applications and future perspectives, Carbohydr. Polym., 267, 118241 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118241
Baghel, R. S., Reddy, C. R. K., Jha, B., Characterization of agarophytic seaweeds from the biorefinery context. Bioresour. Technol, 159, 280-285. (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.083
Beaumont, M., Tran, R., Vera, G., Niedrist, D., Rousset, A., Pierre, R., Forget, A., Hydrogel-forming algae polysaccharides: From seaweed to biomedical applications, Biomacromolecules, 22(3), 1027-1052 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.0c01406
Bras, L. D., Strømme, M., Mihranyan, A. Characterization of dielectric properties of nanocellulose from wood and algae for electrical insulator applications. J. Phys. Chem. B., 119(18), 5911-5917 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b00715
Bogolitsyn, K., Parshina, A., Aleshina, L., Prusskii, A., Tokko, O., Polomarchuk, D., Bogdanovich, N. and Savrasova, Y., Nanocrystalline cellulose from Arctic brown algae Laminaria digitata and Saccharina latissima, Bioact. Carbohydr. Diet. Fiber, 31, 100416 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcdf.2024.100416
Chanda, M. J., Merghoub, N. and Arroussi, E. H., Microalgae polysaccharides: the new sustainable bioactive products for the development of plant bio-stimulants?, World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 35, 1–10 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-019-2745-3
Chandana, A., Mallick, S. P., Dikshit, P. K., Singh, B. N. and Sahi, A. K., Recent developments in bacterial nanocellulose production and its biomedical applications, J. Polym. Environ., 30(10), 4040–4067 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-022-02507-0
Charreau, H., Cavallo, E. and Foresti, M. L., Patents involving nanocellulose: Analysis of their evolution since 2010, Carbohydr. Polym., 237(x), 116039 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116039
Chávez, G. L., Terán, -T. A. and Camacho, -P. O., One-pot isolation of nanocellulose using pelagic Sargassum spp. from the Caribbean coastline, J. Appl. Phycol., 34(1) 637-645 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-021-02643-5
Chen, Y. W., Lee, H. V., Juan, J. C. and Phang, S. M., Production of new cellulose nanomaterial from red algae marine biomass Gelidium elegans, Carbohydr. Polym., 151, 1210–1219 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.06.083
Čolić, M., Tomić, S. and Bekić, M., Immunological aspects of nanocellulose, Immunol. Lett., 222, 80–89 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imlet.2020.04.004
Colusse, G. A., Carneiro, J., Duarte, M. E. R., Carvalho, J. C. D. and Noseda, M. D., Advances in microalgal cell wall polysaccharides: a review focused on structure, production, and biological application, Crit. Rev. Biotechnol., 42(4), 562–577 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2021.1941750
Domozych, D. S., Ciancia, M., Fangel, J. U., Mikkelsen, M. D., Ulvskov, P. and Willats, W. G. T., The cell walls of green algae: a journey through evolution and diversity, Front. Plant Sci., 3, 1-7 (2012).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2012.00082
Du, X., Zhang, Z., Liu, W. and Deng, Y., Nanocellulose-based conductive materials and their emerging applications in energy devices – A review, Nano Energy, 35, 299–320 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.04.001
Dufresne, A., Nanocellulose processing properties and potential applications, Curr. For. Rep., 5(2), 76–89 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-019-00088-1
Gao, H., Duan, B., Lu, A., Deng, H., Du, Y., Shi, X. and Zhang, L., Fabrication of cellulose nanofibers from waste brown algae and their potential application as milk thickeners, Food Hydrocoll., 79, 473–481 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.01.023
Ghilan, A., Nicu, R., Ciolacu, D. E. and Ciolacu, F., Insight into the latest medical applications of nanocellulose, Materials, 16(12), 4447 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124447
Gómez, C. H., Serpa, A., Velásquez, -C. J., Gañán, P., Castro, C., Vélez, L. and Zuluaga, R., Vegetable nanocellulose in food science: A review, Food Hydrocoll., 57, 178–186 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.01.023
Hafid, H. S., Omar, F. N., Zhu, J. and Wakisaka, M., Enhanced crystallinity and thermal properties of cellulose from rice husk using acid hydrolysis treatment, Carbohydr. Polym., 260(x), 117789 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117789
Hakim, A. A. and Mourad, R., Nanocellulose and its polymer composites: preparation, characterization, and applications, Russ. Chem. Rev., 92(4), 1-30 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.57634/RCR5076
Hamouda, R. A., Qarabai, F. A. K., Shahabuddin, F. S., Shaikh, A. T. M. and Makharita, R. R., Antibacterial activity of Ulva/nanocellulose and Ulva/Ag/cellulose nanocomposites and both blended with fluoride against bacteria causing dental decay, Polym., 15(4), 1047 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15041047
Hoeng, F., Denneulin, A. and Bras, J., Use of nanocellulose in printed electronics: a review, Nanoscale, 8(27), 13131–13154 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1039/C6NR03054H
Hua, K., Carlsson, D. O., Ålander, E., Lindström, T., Strømme, M., Mihranyan, A., Ferraz, N., Translational study between structure and biological response of nanocellulose from wood and green algae, RSC Adv., 4(6), 2892-2903 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1039/C3RA45553J
Hua, K., Strømme, M., Mihranyan, A. and Ferraz, N., Nanocellulose from green algae modulates the in vitro inflammatory response of monocytes/macrophages, Cellul., 22(6), 3673–3688 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-015-0772-2
Huang, J., Ma, X., Yang, G. and Alain, D., Introduction to nanocellulose, Nanocellulose: From Fundamentals to Advanced Materials, Wiley, 1–20 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527807437.ch1
Huber, T., Müssig, J., Curnow, O., Pang, S., Bickerton, S. and Staiger, M. P., A critical review of all-cellulose composites, J. Mater. Sci., 47(3), 1171–1186 (2012).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-011-5774-3
Ilyas, R. A. and Atikah, M. S. N., Production of nanocellulose from sustainable algae marine biomass, Seminar on Advanced Bio-and Mineral based Natural Fibre Composites 1-9 (2021).
Jacob, S., Reshmy, R., Antony, S., Madhavan, A., Sindhu, R., Awasthi, M. K., Kuddus, M., Pillai, S., Varjani, S., Pandey, A. and Binod, P., Nanocellulose in tissue engineering and bioremediation: mechanism of action, Bioeng., 13(5), 12823–12833 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2022.2074739
Jeong, T. S., Choi, C. H., Lee, J. Y. and Oh, K. K., Behaviors of glucose decomposition during acid-catalyzed hydrothermal hydrolysis of pretreated Gelidium amansii, Bioresour. Technol., 116, 435–440 (2012).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.104
John, M. J. and Thomas, S., Biofibers and biocomposites, Carbohydr. Polym., 71(3), 343–364 (2008).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2007.05.040
Jorfi, M. and Foster, E. J., Recent advances in nanocellulose for biomedical applications, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 132(14), 41719 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1002/app.41719
Kaur, P., Sharma, N., Munagala, M., Rajkhowa, R., Aallardyce, B., Shastri, Y. and Agrawal, R., Nanocellulose: resources, physio-chemical properties, current uses and future applications, Front. Nanotechnol., 3, 747329 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2021.747329
Kedzior, S. A., Gabriel, V. A., Dubé, M. A. and Cranston, E. D., Nanocellulose in emulsions and heterogeneous water‐based polymer systems: A review, Adv. Mater., 33(28), 2002404 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202002404
Khalid, M. Y., Rashid, A. A., Arif, Z. U., Ahmed, W. and Arshad, H., Recent advances in nanocellulose-based different biomaterials: types, properties, and emerging applications, J. Mater. Res. Technol., 14, 2601–2623 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.07.128
Khalil, H. P. S. A., Davoudpour, Y., Islam, M. N., Mustapha, A., Sudesh, K., Dungani, R. and Jawaid, M., Production and modification of nanofibrillated cellulose using various mechanical processes: a review, Carbohydr. Polym., 99, 649–665 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.08.069
Klemm, D., Cranston, E. D., Fischer, D., Gama, M., Kedzior, S. A., Kralisch, D., Kramer, F., Kondo, T., Lindstrom, T., Nietzsche, S., Welcke, -P. K. and Rauchfuß, F., Nanocellulose as a natural source for groundbreaking applications in materials science: Today’s state, Mater. Today, 21(7), 720–748 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2018.02.001
Kraan, S., Pigments and minor compounds in algae, Funct. Ingredients from Algae for Foods and Nutraceuticals, 205–251 (2013).
https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857098689.1.205
Le, C. T., Unamunzaga, C., Mantecon, L. and Helbert, W., New structural insights into the cell-wall polysaccharide of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Algal Res., 26, 172–179 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2017.07.021
Lee, H. R., Kim, K., Mun, S. C., Chang, Y. K. and Choi, S. Q., A new method to produce cellulose nanofibrils from microalgae and the measurement of their mechanical strength, Carbohydr. Polym., 180, 276–285 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.09.104
Liu, Y., Liu, H. and Shen, Z., Nanocellulose-based filtration membrane in industrial wastewater treatment: A review, Mater., 14(18), 5398 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185398
Liu, Z., Li, X., Xie, W. and Deng, H., Extraction, isolation and characterization of nanocrystalline cellulose from industrial kelp (Laminaria japonica) waste, Carbohydr. Polym., 173, 353–359 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.05.079
Mihhels, K., Yousefi, N., Blomster, J., Solala, I., Solhi, L. and Kontturi, E., Assessment of the alga Cladophora glomerata as a source for cellulose nanocrystals, Biomacromol., 24(11), 4672–4679 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00380
Mihranyan, A., Cellulose from cladophorales green algae: From environmental problem to high‐tech composite materials, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 119(4), 2449-2460 (2011).
https://doi.org/10.1002/app.32959
Mishra, R. K., Sabu, A. and Tiwari, S. K., Materials chemistry and the futurist eco-friendly applications of nanocellulose: Status and prospect, J. Saudi Chem. Soc., 22(8), 949–978 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2018.02.005
Mondal, S., Review on nanocellulose polymer nanocomposites, Polym.-Plast. Technol. Eng., 57(13), 1377–1391 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559.2017.1381253
Nasir, M., Hashim, R., Sulaiman, O. and Asim, M., Nanocellulose: Preparation methods and applications, Cellul.-Reinf. Nanofiber Compos., 261–276, (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100957-4.00011-5
Nishiyama, Y., Structure and properties of the cellulose microfibril, J. Wood Sci., 55(4), 241–249 (2009).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-009-1029-1
Niyazbekova, Z. T., Nagmetova, G. Z. and Kurmanbayev, A. A., An overview of bacterial cellulose applications, Eurasian J. Appl. Biotechnol., 2, 1-17 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.11134/btp.2.2018.3
Norizan, M. N., Shazleen, S. S., Alias, A. H., Sabaruddin, F. A., Asyraf, M. R. M., Zainudin, E. S., Abdullah, N., Samsudin, M. S., Kamarudin, S. H. and Norrrahim, M. N. F., Nanocellulose-based nanocomposites for sustainable applications: A review, Nanomater., 12(19), 3483 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12193483
O’Sullivan, A. C., Cellulose: the structure slowly unravels, Cellul., 4(3), 173–207 (1997).
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018431705579
Oliveira, D. J. P., Bruni, G. P., Fabra, M. J., Zavareze, R. D. E., López, -R. A. and Martínez, -S. M., Development of food packaging bioactive aerogels through the valorization of Gelidium sesquipedale seaweed, Food Hydrocoll., 89, 337–350 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.10.047
Ong, X. R., Chen, A. X., Li, N., Yang, Y. Y. and Luo, H. K., Nanocellulose: Recent advances toward biomedical applications, Small Sci., 3(2), 2200076 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1002/smsc.202200076
Panchal, P., Ogunsona, E. and Mekonnen, T., Trends in advanced functional material applications of nanocellulose, Processes, 7(1), 10 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7010010
Park, S., Baker, J. O., Himmel, M. E., Parilla, P. A. and Johnson, D. K., Cellulose crystallinity index: measurement techniques and their impact on interpreting cellulase performance, Biotechnol. Biofuels, 3(1), 10 (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1186/1754-6834-3-10
Patel, A. K., Vadrale, A. P., Singhania, R. R., Michaud, P., Pandey, A., Chen, S. J., Chen, W. C. and Dong, C. D., Algal polysaccharides: current status and future prospects, Phytochem. Rev., 22(4), 1167-1196 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-021-09799-5
Raju, V., Revathiswaran, R., Subramanian, K. S., Parthiban, K. T., Chandrakumar, K., Anoop, E. V. and Chirayil, C. J., Isolation and characterization of nanocellulose from selected hardwoods, viz., Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. and Casuarina equisetifolia L., by steam explosion method, Sci. Rep., 13(1), 1199 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26600-5
Ram, F., Yadav, P. and Shanmuganathan, K., Nanocellulose/melanin-based composites for energy, environment, and biological applications, J. Mater. Sci., 57(30), 14188–14216 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-022-07512-1
Ramamurthy, M., Vasanthkumar, N. P., Perumal, G. and Senthilkumar, N., Formulation and Features of Chitosan and Natural Fiber Blended Bio-composite towards Environmental Sustainability, J. Environ. Nanotechnol., 14(1), 104-112 (2025).
https://doi.org/10.13074/jent.2025.03.243932
Reshmy, R., Philip, E., Paul, S. A., Madhavan, A., Sindhu, R., Binod, P., Ashok, P. and Sirohi, R., Nanocellulose-based products for sustainable applications – recent trends and possibilities, Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol., 19(4), 779–806 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-020-09551-z
Reshmy, R., Thomas, D., Philip, E., Paul, S. A., Madhavan, A., Sindhu, R., Binod, P., Puhazhendhi, A., Sirohi, R., Tarafdar, A. and Pandey, A., Potential of nanocellulose for wastewater treatment, Chemosphere, 281, 130738 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130738
Ribeiro, R. S. A., Pohlmann, B. C., Calado, V., Bojorge, N. and Pereira, J. N., Production of nanocellulose by enzymatic hydrolysis: Trends and challenges, Eng. Life Sci., 19(4), 279–291 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1002/elsc.201800158
Rodríguez, -Q. J., Rodríguez, M. K., Samaniego, -B. C. A., García, -J. E. G. and Alvarado, -R. C., Development of nanocellulose hydrogels from Sargassum seaweed as controlled nutrient release systems and their application in germination, Ecol. Eng. Environ. Technol. (EEET), 25(11), 308-320 (2024).
http://doi.org/10.12912/27197050/192775
Ross, I. L., Shah, S., Hankamer, B. and Amiralian, N., Microalgal nanocellulose – opportunities for a circular bioeconomy, Trends Plant Sci., 26(9), 924–939 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2021.05.004
Salas, C., Nypelö, T., Rodriguez, -A. C., Carrillo, C. and Rojas, O. J., Nanocellulose properties and applications in colloids and interfaces, Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci., 19(5), 383–396 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2014.10.003
Salem, D. M., Ismail, M. M. Characterization of cellulose and cellulose nanofibers isolated from various seaweed species. Egypt. J. Aquat. Res., 48(4), 307-313. (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2021.11.001
Saud, A., Saleem, H. and Zaidi, S. J., Progress and prospects of nanocellulose-based membranes for desalination and water treatment, Membranes, 12(5), 462 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12050462
Sheekh, -E. M. M., Yousuf, W. E., Kenawy, E. R. and Mohamed, T. M., Biosynthesis of cellulose from Ulva Lactuca, manufacture of nanocellulose and its application as antimicrobial polymer, Sci. Rep., 13(1), 10188 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37287-7
Siddhanta, A. K., Kumar, S., Mehta, G. K., Chhatbar, M. U., Oza, M. D., Sanandiya, N. D., Kondaveeti, S., Cellulose contents of some abundant Indian seaweed species, Nat Commun., 8(4), 1934578X1300800423 (2013).
https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X1300800423
Singh, S., Gaikwad, K. K., Park, S. I. and Lee, Y. S., Microwave-assisted step-reduced extraction of seaweed (Gelidiella aceroso) cellulose nanocrystals, Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 99, 506–510 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.03.004
Sterner, M., Edlund, U. Multicomponent fractionation of Saccharina latissima brown algae using chelating salt solutions. J Appl Physiol, 28(4), 2561-2574. (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-015-0785-0
Steven, S., Mardiyati, Y., Shoimah, S. M., Rizkiansyah, R. R., Suratman, R. and Santosa, S. P., Preparation and characterization of nanocrystalline cellulose from Cladophora sp. algae, Int. J. Adv. Sci. Eng. Inf. Technol., 11(3), 1035-1041 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.11.3.10278
Stiger-Pouvreau, V., Bourgougnon, N., Deslandes, E. Carbohydrates from seaweeds, Seaweed in health and disease prevention, Academic Press, 223-274 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802772-1.00008-7
Suciyati, S. W., Manurung, P., Junaidi, J., Sembiring, S. and Situmeang, R., Synthesis and characterization of nanocellulose from Cladophora sp., Ecol. Environ. Conserv., 28(2), 521–527 (2022).
http://doi.org/10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i02s.004
Tafete, G. A., Abera, M. K. and Thothadri, G., Review on nanocellulose-based materials for supercapacitors applications, J. Energy Storage, 48, 103938 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103938
Thomas, P., Duolikun, T., Rumjit, N. P., Moosavi, S., Lai, C. W., Johan, M. R. B. and Fen, L. B., Comprehensive review on nanocellulose: Recent developments, challenges and future prospects, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., 110, 103884 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2020.103884
Trache, D., Hussin, M. H., Haafiz, M. K. M. and Thakur, V. K., Recent progress in cellulose nanocrystals: sources and production, Nanoscale, 9(5), 1763–1786 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1039/C6NR09494E
Trache, D., Tarchoun, A. F., Derradji, M., Hamidon, T. S., Masruchin, N., Brosse, N. and Hussin, M. H., Nanocellulose: from fundamentals to advanced applications, Front. Chem., 8, 392 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2020.00392
Van-Hai, L., Son, H. N. and Seo, Y. B. Physical and bio-composite properties of nanocrystalline cellulose from wood, cotton linters, cattail, and red algae, Cellulose, 2(3), 1789-1798 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-015-0633-z
Wei, H., Rodriguez, K., Renneckar, S. and Vikesland, P. J., Environmental science and engineering applications of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites, Environ. Sci. Nano, 1(4), 302–316 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EN00059E
Xiang, Z., Gao, W., Chen, L., Lan, W., Zhu, J. Y. and Runge, T., A comparison of cellulose nanofibrils produced from Cladophora glomerata algae and bleached eucalyptus pulp, Cellul., 23(1), 493–503 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-015-0840-7
Xu, S. Y., Huang, X. and Cheong, K. L., Recent advances in marine algae polysaccharides: Isolation, structure, and activities, Mar. Drugs, 15(12), 388 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.3390/md15120388
Yahya, E. B., Elarbash, S. S., Bairwan, R. D., Mohamed, M. M. I., Khan, N. B., Harlina, P. W. and Abdul Khalil, A. H. P. S., The role of microorganisms in the isolation of nanocellulose from plant biomass, Forests, 14(7), 1457 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.3390/f14071457
Yousif, Y. M., Hassan, O. M. and Ibraheem, I. J., Removal of heavy metal ions from water using nanocellulose-based membranes derived from macroalgae Chara corallina, J. Degrad. Min. Lands Manage., 11(3), 5793-5803(2024).
https://doi.org/10.15243/jdmlm.2024.113.5793
Zainuddin, Z., Zaini, H. H. M. and Mohammad-Noor, N., Preliminary study on nanocellulose production in local seaweeds, Int. STEM J., 2(1), 36–42 (2021).
Zaki, M., Abdul, K. H. P. S., Sabaruddin, F. A., Bairwan, R. D., Oyekanmi, A. A., Alfatah, T., Danish, M., Mistar, E. M. and Abdullah, C. K., Microbial treatment for nanocellulose extraction from marine algae and its applications as sustainable functional material, Bioresour. Technol. Rep., 16, 100811 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BITEB.2021.100811
Zanchetta, E., Damergi, E., Patel, B., Borgmeyer, T., Pick, H., Pulgarin, A. and Ludwig, C., Algal cellulose, production and potential use in plastics: Challenges and opportunities, Algal Res., 56, 102288 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2021.102288
Zhang, Q., Zhang, L., Wu, W. and Xiao, H., Methods and applications of nanocellulose loaded with inorganic nanomaterials: A review, Carbohydr. Polym., 229, 115454 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115454
Zhao, Y., Moser, C., Lindström, M. E., Henriksson, G. and Li, J., Cellulose nanofibers from softwood, hardwood, and tunicate: preparation–structure–film performance interrelation, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 9(15), 13508–13519 (2017).
